5 Study 1 - retrospective case survey
From EvolutionaryProductDevelopment
5.1 Introduction
In this paragraph, in a comparative multiple retrospective case survey, the history of five products are analysed. This was done by means of a literature study and with the aid of interviews of people involved with the products, such as directors, marketing managers, product managers and designers. The following products were analysed: electric shavers (paragraph 5.2), mobile phones (5.3), bicycles (5.4) shampoo packaging (5.5) and holidays (5.6).
The shaver was chosen because it is an example of a durable consumer product that has gone through a long period of product development. It is supposed that emotional benefits are not as important as they are with products like a mobile phone or a bicycle, since for friends and acquaintances it is invisible, as a shaver rarely leaves the confines of a bathroom. The mobile phone was chosen as an example of a product that developed very quickly in a very short period of time. Moreover it is a product with a lot of exposure. The bicycle was chosen because it is a product that people usually use for a very long time (often ten years or more) and because it has had a long history so that it seems likely that the last two product phases, individualisation and awareness, have played an important part in this product. Shampoo packaging and holidays are selected to show that the theory of product phases is also suited for fast moving consumer goods and services. Although these products are not the prime subject of this study, it is interesting to see if the theory can be applied to them.
5.2 Electric shavers
Shavers were analysed and described on the basis of the products from Philips. Philips was chosen because it has been a market leader in shavers for over forty years. The development of the (Philips) shaver follows the theory to a great extent (see figure 5.1) (Ramakers, 1984; Baudet, 1986; Van Oost, 2003; Dijkstra, 2005). With regard to the first two phases, some information is missing concerning pricing, production, service and ethics. During the individualisation and awareness part of the product phases, only some of the product characteristics are partially met. With regards to 'product development' this means that new product development is aimed at different target groups, but not aimed at individuals. For the 'number of competitors' this means that the shaver does have a high market penetration, and there are not as many competitors as the theory proposes. For 'pricing' this means that there is a lot of competition for the price of the products, but this does not mean that the price can rise because the product has been customised. Finally, for 'promotion' the product characteristic that 'interactive media are used to customise the product' does not apply.
| Product characteristics | Performance | Optimisation | Itemisation | Segmentation | Individualisation | Awareness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Newness | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Functionality | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Product development | + | + | + | + | +/- | +/- |
| Styling | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Number of competitors | + | + | + | +/- | +/- | +/- |
| Pricing | ? | ? | + | + | + | +/- |
| Production | ? | ? | + | + | + | + |
| Promotion | + | + | + | + | +/- | +/- |
| Service | ? | ? | ? | + | + | + |
| Ethics | ? | ? | + | + | + | + |
Figure 5.1 Extent to which the (electric) shaver applies to the theory of product phases; + = applies; - = does not apply; +/- = applies only partially; ? = unknown, uncertain.
5.3 Mobile phones
In a short period of time the mobile phone has passed through all the product phases and met almost all the product characteristics (Anon., 2004; Anon., 2005a; Anon., 2005b; Karjaluoto, 2005; Srivastava, 2005). Because of the quick development of the market and the enormous amount of products sold in a short period of time, the mobile phone does not meet the product characteristics for 'production' in the product optimisation phase. Also, in the product segmentation phase, the product characteristic, 'number of competitors' is not met. The description suggests many competitors, but in reality there are only a few large manufacturers. In the third quarter of 2005 the market shares are: Nokia 33,2%; Motorola 18,5%; Samsung 13,4%; LG 6,6% and Sony Ericsson 6,5%.
| Product characteristics | Performance | Optimisation | Itemisation | Segmentation | Individualisation | Awareness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Newness | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Functionality | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Product development | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Styling | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Number of competitors | + | + | + | +/- | +/- | +/- |
| Pricing | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Production | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Promotion | + | - | + | + | + | + |
| Service | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Ethics | + | + | + | + | + | + |
Figure 5.2 Extent to which the mobile phone applies to the theory of product phases; + = applies; - = does not apply; +/- = applies only partially; ? = unknown, uncertain.
5.4 Bicycles
The bicycle follows the theory of product phases to a great part (Baudet, 1986; Bijker, 1990; Rietveld and Kuner, 1999; Van der Wal, 2005). The first three phases that are passed through conform to the theory. Despite that, the history of the bicycle interferes with the theory in a few cases. An important explanation is that the bicycle has a long history. One can say that the bicycle even influenced history. Suburbanisation became possible amongst others by the bicycle (and later to a greater extent with the invention of the car). Thanks to the bicycle people could move further away from their work. Interferences with the theory are attributed to the Second World War, due to lack of materials and the introduction of the car and the moped. With regard to promotion, the history of the bicycle differs from the theory of product phases. Until now the advertising efforts remained rather small. Direct marketing methods are not really utilized, and advertising on radio or television is seldom.
| Product characteristics | Performance | Optimisation | Itemisation | Segmentation | Individualisation | Awareness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Newness | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Functionality | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Product development | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Styling | + | + | +/- | + | + | + |
| Number of competitors | + | + | - | + | + | + |
| Pricing | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Production | + | + | +/- | +/- | + | + |
| Promotion | + | + | - | - | - | - |
| Service | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Ethics | + | + | + | + | +/- | +/- |
Figure 5.3 Extent to which the bicycle applies to the theory of product phases; + = applies; - = does not apply; +/- = applies only partially; ? = unknown, uncertain.
5.5 Shampoo packaging
The history of the packaging of shampoo was also analysed, and was mainly based on the mark of Andrélon. This mark was chosen for two reasons. Firstly, Andrélon has always been one of the market leaders in the Netherlands, and for the most part has actually been the number one. Secondly, the design of the bottle formed an important part of the mark Andrélon. As with all of the three aforementioned products described herein, the shampoo packaging follows the theory of product phases for the most part (Van Ginkel, 1998; Anon., 2006; Rothkop, 2006). But once again there were a couple of disruptions. However, most of them were caused by external factors, such as changes in the market (consumers used to purchase shampoo from a drug store but within the space of a few years that changed to a supermarket) and the Unilever takeover. Furthermore, Andrélon never made any attempts to individualise their products, and the attempts made by Biolage Blends do not seem to be very successful until now. In this paragraph, shampoo packaging should be read as shampoo and packaging, since product development and promotion are mainly aimed at just the shampoo, and only in a few cases does the packaging play a part.
| Product characteristics | Performance | Optimisation | Itemisation | Segmentation | Individualisation | Awareness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Newness | + | +/- | + | + | + | + |
| Functionality | + | +/- | + | + | + | + |
| Product development | + | + | + | + | +/- | +/- |
| Styling | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Number of competitors | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Pricing | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Production | ? | ? | +/- | +/- | + | + |
| Promotion | + | +/- | + | + | + | +/- |
| Service | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Ethics | + | + | + | + | +/- | +/- |
Figure 5.4 Extent to which the shampoo packaging applies to the theory of product phases; + = applies; - = does not apply; +/- = applies only partially; ? = unknown, uncertain.
5.6 Holidays
The history of the travel agency branch also follows the theory of product phases to a great part (Elkington and Hailes, 1992; De Haan and Van der Vliet, 2005). An exception has to be made for the number of competitors in the first three product phases. Due to the easy accessibility of the market (it is not very difficult to organise a journey, as the necessary investments are not that large) and the enormous demand, there are very many competitors from the outset. The product characteristic production is not contemplated. For the characteristic styling the documentation is studied.
| Product characteristics | Performance | Optimisation | Itemisation | Segmentation | Individualisation | Awareness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Newness | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Functionality | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Product development | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Styling | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Number of competitors | - | - | - | + | + | + |
| Pricing | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Production | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |
| Promotion | +/- | +/- | + | + | + | + |
| Service | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| Ethics | + | + | + | + | + | + |
Figure 5.5 Extent to which vacations apply to the theory of product phases; + = applies; - = does not apply; +/- = applies only partially; ? = unknown, uncertain.
5.7 Research undertaken by master students in Industrial Design Engineering at the University of Twente
During the master course, 'Evolutionary Product Development' at the University of Twente, Industrial Design Engineering students analysed the history of a number of products considering the theory of product phases. In general, the students found that the products followed the theory quite well - an overview of the products that have been studied is shown in figure 5.6.
A remark that several students made, is that the product phases often overlap. For the case of a camera, Mansour (2005) states that the itemisation and segmentation phases almost completely coincide. Garde (2005) noticed the same thing for the espresso machine. Brummelman (2005) found that in the history of the watch almost from the beginning (at the end of the nineteenth century) segmentation can be found because there is a difference between watches for men and watches for women. With this exception, the watch follows the theory quite well, where the 'real' segmentation phase does not start until the nineties of the last century.
The students found that nine products were in the segmentation phase, seven were in the individualisation phase and three were in the awareness phase. Six of the students that concluded that their product was in the segmentation phase, said that they did not expect the product to enter the next phase (individualisation) (see figure 5.6).
| Product characteristics | Performance | Optimisation | Itemisation | Segmentation | Individualisation | Awareness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Backpack | • | • | • | • | + | |
| Glasses | • | • | • | • | • | ? |
| Moped | • | • | • | • | • | ? |
| Camera (digital) | • | • | • | • | + | |
| Computer mouse | • | • | • | • | • | ? |
| Espresso machine | • | • | • | • | + | |
| Kitchen cooker | • | • | • | • | • | ? |
| Hairdryer | • | • | • | • | • | ? |
| Watch | • | • | • | • | • | ? |
| Laptop | • | • | • | • | • | • |
| Mixer | • | • | • | • | - | |
| Scales (for persons) | • | • | • | • | + | |
| Vacuum cleaner | • | • | • | • | • | + |
| Iron | • | • | • | • | - | |
| Electric tooth brush | • | • | • | • | - | |
| Toaster | • | • | • | • | - | |
| Tent | • | • | • | • | • | • |
| Washing machine | • | • | • | • | - | • |
| Wall clock | • | • | • | • | - |
Figure 5.6. The nineteen products analysed by the Industrial Design Engineering master's students. The dots indicate if a product phase was found, the last dot indicates the phase that product is currently in; a '+' indicates that the student expected that the next phase will be reached; a '-' indicates that the expectation is that the next phase will not be reached; a '?' indicates that the student did not know if the next phase will be reached or that he did not make a decision about it.
5.8 Summary
In this paragraph, twenty-four products are briefly analysed including the analysis of nineteen studies undertaken by the students. It can be concluded that the analysed products follow the theory as expected. In most cases some (often small) variations are found. These variations concern the promotion (among others with the bicycle and the moped), the number of competitors (vacations) and production (glasses). Furthermore it proves to be difficult to draw a fine line between the product phases, as they sometimes overlap for a long period of time. In a number of cases, the last two phases are not found. A possible explanation can be that the phases have not yet been reached. But sometimes a question that arises is if the product is suited to reach the product individualisation phase. Finally, in a number of studies it was found that the product phase awareness can be found on a corporate level, but very rarely on a product level. For instance, the company communicates its environmental awareness but this is not reflected in their product.
